Involvement of the tumour necrosis factor receptor system in glioblastoma cell death induced by palbociclib-heptamethine cyanine dye conjugate.

Glioblastoma is the most common and aggressive primary brain tumour in adults. The development of anti-brain cancer agents are challenged by the blood-brain barrier and the resistance conferred by the local tumour microenvironment. Heptamethine cyanine dyes (HMCDs) are a class of near-infrared fluorescence compounds that have recently emerged as promising agents for drug delivery. We conjugated palbociclib, a cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 4/6 inhibitor, to an HMCD, MHI-148, and conducted drug activity analysis on primary patient-derived glioblastoma cell lines. In addition to the expected cytostatic activity, our in vitro studies revealed that palbociclib-MHI-148 conjugate resulted in an almost 100-fold increase in cytotoxicity compared to palbociclib alone. This shift of palbociclib from cytostatic to cytotoxic when conjugated to MHI-148 was due to increased DNA damage, as indicated by an increase in γH2AX foci, followed by an increased expression of key extrinsic apoptosis genes, including TP53, TNFR1, TRAIL, FADD and caspase 8. In addition, we observed a time-dependent increase in the cell surface expression of TNFR1, consistent with an observed increase in the secretion TNFα, followed by TNFR1 endocytosis at 48 h. The treatment of patient GBM cells with the palbociclib-MHI-148 conjugate prevented TNFα-induced NFκB translocation, suggesting conjugate-induced TNFR1 signalling favoured the TNFR1-mediated apoptotic response rather than the pro-inflammatory response pathway. Notably, pharmacological inhibition of endocytosis of TNFR1, and siRNA-knockdown of TNFR1 reversed the palbociclib-MHI-148-induced cell death. These results show a novel susceptibility of glioblastoma cells to TNFR1-dependent apoptosis, dependent on inhibition of canonical NFκB signalling using our previously reported palbociclib-HMCD conjugate. Video Abstract.

Elucidating the cellular uptake mechanisms of heptamethine cyanine dye analogues for their use as an anticancer drug-carrier molecule for the treatment of glioblastoma.

The development of chemotherapies for glioblastoma is hindered by their limited bioavailability and toxicity on normal brain function. To overcome these limitations, we investigated the structure-dependent activity of heptamethine cyanine dyes (HMCD), a group of tumour-specific and BBB permeable near-infrared fluorescent dyes, in both commercial (U87MG) and patient-derived GBM cell lines. HMCD analogues with strongly ionisable sulphonic acid groups were not taken up by patient-derived GBM cells, but were taken up by the U87MG cell line. HMCD uptake relies on a combination of transporter uptake through organic anion-transporting polypeptides (OATPs) and endocytosis into GBM cells. The uptake of HMCDs was not affected by p-glycoprotein efflux in GBM cells. Finally, we demonstrate structure-dependent cytotoxic activity at high concentrations (EC50 : 1-100 µM), likely due to mitochondrial damage-induced apoptosis. An in vivo orthotopic glioblastoma model highlights tumour-specific accumulation of our lead HMCD, MHI-148, for up to 7 days following a single intraperitoneal injection. These studies suggest that strongly ionisable groups like sulphonic acids hamper the cellular uptake of HMCDs in patient-derived GBM cell lines, highlighting cell line-specific differences in HMCD uptake. We envisage these findings will help in the design and structural modifications of HMCDs for drug-delivery applications for glioblastoma.

Single-cell image analysis reveals over-expression of organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs) in human glioblastoma tissue.

Background: Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive primary brain tumor in adults. Whilst the role of the efflux transporters are well established in GBM, the expression and function of uptake transporters, such as the organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) family, are not well understood. OATPs possess broad substrate specificity that includes anti-cancer agents; therefore, we sought to investigate the expression of four OATP isoforms in human GBM cell types using patient tumor tissue. Methods: We used fluorescent immunohistochemical labeling of paraffin-embedded surgically resected tissues and single-cell image analysis methods to explore the expression of the OATP isoforms in different tumor cell types through co-labeling with cell-type specific markers, such as IBA1 (pan-myeloid), GFAP (tumor cell), PDGFRß (stromal cell), and UEA-1-lectin (endothelial). Results: We found significant over-expression of all the OATP isoforms (OATP1A2, 2B1, 1C1 and 4A1) in GBM tumor sections when compared to non-neoplastic brain. A single-cell image analysis revealed that OATPs were significantly upregulated throughout the tumor parenchyma, with significantly higher expression found on lectin-positive blood vessels and IBA1-positive myeloid cells in GBM compared to non-tumor brain tissue. Qualitative analysis of the four OATP isoforms demonstrated greater expression of OATP4A1 in peri-necrotic regions of GBM tissue, which correlated with hypoxia-related markers within the Ivy GAP RNAseq dataset. Conclusion: Here, we demonstrate, for the first time, the protein expression of four OATPs in human GBM tissue, including upregulation within the tumor microenvironment by myeloid cells and tumor vasculature, and isoform-specific upregulation within hypoxic niches.

Synthesis and Structure-Activity Relationships for the Anti-Mycobacterial Activity of 3-Phenyl-N-(Pyridin-2-ylmethyl)Pyrazolo[1,5-a]Pyrimidin-7-Amines.

Pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidines have been reported as potent inhibitors of mycobacterial ATP synthase for the treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb). In this work, we report the design and synthesis of approximately 70 novel 3,5-diphenyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7-amines and their comprehensive structure-activity relationship studies. The most effective pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7-amine analogues contained a 3-(4-fluoro)phenyl group, together with a variety of 5-alkyl, 5-aryl and 5-heteroaryl substituents. A range of substituted 7-(2-pyridylmethylamine) derivatives were also active. Some of these compounds exhibited potent in vitro M.tb growth inhibition, low hERG liability and good mouse/human liver microsomal stabilities, highlighting their potential as inhibitors of M.tb.

Synthetic studies towards isomeric pyrazolopyrimidines as potential ATP synthesis inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Structural correction of reported N-(6-(2-(dimethylamino)ethoxy)-5-fluoropyridin-3-yl)-2-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-(trifluoromethyl)pyrazolo[1,5-α]pyrimidin-7-amine.

During our studies into preparing analogues of pyrazolopyrimidine as ATP synthesis inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a regiospecific condensation reaction between ethyl 4,4,4-trifluoroacetoacetate and 3-(4-fluorophenyl)-1H-pyrazol-5-amine was observed which was dependent on the specific reaction conditions employed. This work identifies optimized reaction conditions to access either the pyrazolo[3,4-ß]pyridine or the pyrazolo[1,5-α]pyrimidine scaffold. This has led to the structural confirmation of the previously reported pyrazolopyrimidine 17b which was reported as pyrazolo[1,5-α]pyrimidine structure 2 which was corrected to pyrazolo[3,4-ß]-pyrimidine 19.

Synthesis and structure-activity relationships for a new class of tetrahydronaphthalene amide inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Drug resistant tuberculsosis (TB) is global health crisis that demands novel treatment strategies. Bacterial ATP synthase inhibitors such as bedaquiline and next-generation analogues (such as TBAJ-876) have shown promising efficacy in patient populations and preclinical studies, respectively, suggesting that selective targeting of this enzyme presents a validated therapeutic strategy for the treatment of TB. In this work, we report tetrahydronaphthalene amides (THNAs) as a new class of ATP synthase inhibitors that are effective in preventing the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) in culture. Design, synthesis and comprehensive structure-activity relationship studies for approximately 80 THNA analogues are described, with a small selection of compounds exhibiting potent (in some cases MIC90 <1 µg/mL) in vitro M.tb growth inhibition taken forward to pharmacokinetic and off-target profiling studies. Ultimately, we show that some of these THNAs possess reduced lipophilic properties, decreased hERG liability, faster mouse/human liver microsomal clearance rates and shorter plasma half-lives compared with bedaquiline, potentially addressing of the main concerns of persistence and phospholipidosis associated with bedaquiline.

Cytoprotective agent troxipide-cyanine dye conjugate with cytotoxic and antiproliferative activity in patient-derived glioblastoma cell lines.

Cytoprotective agents are mainly used to protect the gastrointestinal tract linings and in the treatment of gastric ulcers. These agents are devoid of appreciable cytotoxic or cytostatic effects, and medicinal chemistry efforts to modify them into anticancer agents are rare. A drug repurposing campaign initiated in our laboratory with the primary focus of discovering brain cancer drugs resulted in drug-dye conjugate 1, a combination of the cytoprotective agent troxipide and heptamethine cyanine dye MHI 148. The drug-dye conjugate 1 was evaluated in three different patient-derived adult glioblastoma cell lines, commercially available U87 glioblastoma, and one paediatric glioblastoma cell line. In all cases, the conjugate 1 showed potent cytotoxic activity with nanomolar potency (EC50: 267 nM). Interestingly, troxipide alone does not show any cytotoxic and cytostatic activity in the above cell lines. We also observe a synergistic effect of 1 with temozolomide (TMZ), the standard drug used for glioblastoma treatment, even though the cell lines we used in this study were resistant to TMZ treatment. Herein we disclose the synthesis and in vitro activity of drug-dye conjugate 1 for treatment of difficult-to-treat brain cancers such as glioblastoma.

The Use of Heptamethine Cyanine Dyes as Drug-Conjugate Systems in the Treatment of Primary and Metastatic Brain Tumors.

Effective cancer therapeutics for brain tumors must be able to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to reach the tumor in adequate quantities and overcome the resistance conferred by the local tumor microenvironment. Clinically approved chemotherapeutic agents have been investigated for brain neoplasms, but despite their effectiveness in peripheral cancers, failed to show therapeutic success in brain tumors. This is largely due to their poor bioavailability and specificity towards brain tumors. A targeted delivery system might improve the efficacy of the candidate compounds by increasing the retention time in the tumor tissue, and minimizing the numerous side effects associated with the non-specific distribution of the chemotherapy agent. Heptamethine cyanine dyes (HMCDs) are a class of near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) compounds that have recently emerged as promising agents for drug delivery. Initially explored for their use in imaging and monitoring neoplasms, their tumor-targeting properties have recently been investigated for their use as drug carrier systems. This review will explore the recent developments in the tumour-targeting properties of a specific group of NIRF cyanine dyes and the preclinical evidence for their potential as drug-delivery systems in the treatment of primary and metastatic brain tumors.

Synthesis and structure-activity relationships for tetrahydroisoquinoline-based inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

A series of 5,8-disubstituted tetrahydroisoquinolines were shown to be effective inhibitors of M. tb in culture and modest inhibitors of M. tb ATP synthase. There was a broad general trend of improved potency with higher lipophilicity. Large substituents (e.g., Bn) at the tetrahydroquinoline 5-position were well-tolerated, while N-methylpiperazine was the preferred 8-substituent. Structure-activity relationships for 7-linked side chains showed that the nature of the 7-linking group was important; -CO- and -COCH2- linkers were less effective than -CH2- or -CONH- ones. This suggests that the positioning of a terminal aromatic ring is important for target binding. Selected compounds showed much faster rates of microsomal clearance than did the clinical ATP synthase inhibitor bedaquiline, and modest inhibition of mycobacterial ATP synthase.

PARP inhibitor cyanine dye conjugate with enhanced cytotoxic and antiproliferative activity in patient derived glioblastoma cell lines.

We describe the synthesis and in vitro activity of drug-dye conjugate 1, which is a combination of the PARP inhibitor rucaparib and heptamethine cyanine dye IR-786. The drug-dye conjugate 1 was evaluated in three different patient-derived glioblastoma cell lines and showed strong cytotoxic activity with nanomolar potency (EC50: 128 nM), which was a 780 fold improvement over rucaparib itself. We also observe a synergistic effect of 1 with temozolomide (TMZ), the standard drug for treatment for glioblastoma even though these cell lines were resistant to TMZ treatment. We envisage such conjugates to be worth exploring for their utility in the treatment of various brain cancers.

Heptamethine Cyanine Dye Mediated Drug Delivery: Hype or Hope.

This review covers the application of heptamethine cyanine dye (HMCD) mediated drug delivery. A relatively small number of HMCDs possess tumor targeting abilities, and this has spurred interest from research groups to explore them as drug delivery systems. Their tumor selectivity is primarily attributed to their uptake by certain isoforms of organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs) which are overexpressed in cancer tissues, although there are other possible mechanisms for the observed selectivity still under investigation. This specificity is confirmed using various cancer cell lines and is accompanied by moderate cytotoxicity. Their retention in tumor tissue is facilitated by the formation of albumin adducts as revealed by published mechanistic studies. HMCDs are also organelle selective dyes with specificity toward mitochondria and lysosomes, and with absorption and emission in the near-infrared region. This makes them valuable tools for biomedical imaging, especially in the field of fluorescence-guided tumor surgery. Furthermore, conjugating antitumor agents to HMCDs is providing novel drugs that await clinical testing. HMCD development as theranostic agents with dual tumor targeting and treatment capability signals a new approach to overcome drug resistance (mediated through evasion of efflux pumps) and systemic toxicity, the two parameters which have long plagued drug discovery.

Synthetic Studies to Help Elucidate the Metabolism of the Preclinical Candidate TBAJ-876-A Less Toxic and More Potent Analogue of Bedaquiline.

Bedaquiline is a novel drug approved in 2012 by the FDA for treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis (TB). Although it shows high efficacy towards drug-resistant forms of TB, its use has been limited by the potential for significant side effects. In particular, bedaquiline is a very lipophilic compound with an associated long terminal half-life and shows potent inhibition of the cardiac potassium hERG channel, resulting in QTc interval prolongation in humans that may result in cardiac arrhythmia. To address these issues, we carried out a drug discovery programme to develop an improved second generation analogue of bedaquiline. From this medicinal chemistry program, a candidate (TBAJ-876) has been selected to undergo further preclinical evaluation. During this evaluation, three major metabolites arising from TBAJ-876 were observed in several preclinical animal models. We report here our synthetic efforts to unequivocally structurally characterize these three metabolites through their independent directed synthesis.

Variations in the C-unit of bedaquiline provides analogues with improved biology and pharmacology.

Analogues of the anti-tuberculosis drug bedaquiline, bearing a 3,5-dimethoxy-4-pyridyl C-unit, retain high anti-bacterial potency yet exert less inhibition of the hERG potassium channel, in vitro, than the parent compound. Two of these analogues (TBAJ-587 and TBAJ-876) are now in preclinical development. The present study further explores structure-activity relationships across a range of related 3,5-disubstituted-4-pyridyl C-unit bedaquiline analogues of greatly varying lipophilicity (clogP from 8.16 to 1.89). This broader class shows similar properties to the 3,5-dimethoxy-4-pyridyl series, being substantially more potent in vitro and equally active in an in vivo (mouse) model than bedaquiline, while retaining a lower cardiovascular risk profile through greatly attenuated hERG inhibition.

The synthesis of a novel Crizotinib heptamethine cyanine dye conjugate that potentiates the cytostatic and cytotoxic effects of Crizotinib in patient-derived glioblastoma cell lines.

We describe the synthesis of drug-dye conjugate 1 between anaplastic lymphoma kinase inhibitor Crizotinib and heptamethine cyanine dye IR-786. The drug-dye conjugate 1 was evaluated in three different patient-derived glioblastoma cell lines and showed potent cytotoxic activity with nanomolar potency (EC50: 50.9 nM). We also demonstrate evidence for antiproliferative activity of 1 with single digit nanomolar potency (IC50: 4.7 nM). Furthermore, the cytotoxic effects conveyed a dramatic, 110-fold improvement over Crizotinib. This improvement was even more pronounced (492-fold) when 1 was combined with Temozolomide, the standard drug for treatment for glioblastoma. This work lays the foundation for future exploration of similar tyrosine kinase inhibitor drug-dye conjugates for the treatment of glioblastoma.

Structure-activity relationships for unit C pyridyl analogues of the tuberculosis drug bedaquiline.

The ATP-synthase inhibitor bedaquiline is effective against drug-resistant tuberculosis but is extremely lipophilic (clogP 7.25) with a very long plasma half-life. Additionally, inhibition of potassium current through the cardiac hERG channel by bedaquiline, is associated with prolongation of the QT interval, necessitating cardiovascular monitoring. Analogues were prepared where the naphthalene C-unit was replaced with substituted pyridines to produce compounds with reduced lipophilicity, anticipating a reduction in half-life. While there was a direct correlation between in vitro inhibitory activity against M. tuberculosis (MIC90) and compound lipophilicity, potency only fell off sharply below a clogP of about 4.0, providing a useful lower bound for analogue design. The bulk of the compounds remained potent inhibitors of the hERG potassium channel, with notable exceptions where IC50 values were at least 5-fold higher than that of bedaquiline. Many of the compounds had desirably higher rates of clearance than bedaquiline, but this was associated with lower plasma exposures in mice, and similar or higher MICs resulted in lower AUC/MIC ratios than bedaquiline for most compounds. The two compounds with lower potency against hERG exhibited similar clearance to bedaquiline and excellent efficacy in vivo, suggesting further exploration of C-ring pyridyls is worthwhile.

3,5-Dialkoxypyridine analogues of bedaquiline are potent antituberculosis agents with minimal inhibition of the hERG channel.

Bedaquiline is a new drug of the diarylquinoline class that has proven to be clinically effective against drug-resistant tuberculosis, but has a cardiac liability (prolongation of the QT interval) due to its potent inhibition of the cardiac potassium channel protein hERG. Bedaquiline is highly lipophilic and has an extremely long terminal half-life, so has the potential for more-than-desired accumulation in tissues during the relatively long treatment durations required to cure TB. The present work is part of a program that seeks to identify a diarylquinoline that is as potent as bedaquiline against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, with lower lipophilicity, higher clearance, and lower risk for QT prolongation. Previous work led to the identification of compounds with greatly-reduced lipophilicity compounds that retain good anti-tubercular activity in vitro and in mouse models of TB, but has not addressed the hERG blockade. We now present compounds where the C-unit naphthalene is replaced by a 3,5-dialkoxy-4-pyridyl, demonstrate more potent in vitro and in vivo anti-tubercular activity, with greatly attenuated hERG blockade. Two examples of this series are in preclinical development.

Structure-activity relationships for analogs of the tuberculosis drug bedaquiline with the naphthalene unit replaced by bicyclic heterocycles.

Replacing the naphthalene C-unit of the anti-tuberculosis drug bedaquiline with a range of bicyclic heterocycles of widely differing lipophilicity gave analogs with a 4.5-fold range in clogP values. The biological results for these compounds indicate on average a lower clogP limit of about 5.0 in this series for retention of potent inhibitory activity (MIC90s) against M.tb in culture. Some of the compounds also showed a significant reduction in inhibition of hERG channel potassium current compared with bedaquiline, but there was no common structural feature that distinguished these.

Synthesis and evaluation of analogues of the tuberculosis drug bedaquiline containing heterocyclic B-ring units.

Analogues of bedaquiline where the phenyl B-unit was replaced with monocyclic heterocycles of widely differing lipophilicity (thiophenes, furans, pyridines) were synthesised and evaluated. While there was an expected broad positive correlation between lipophilicity and anti-TB activity, the 4-pyridyl derivatives appeared to have an additional contribution to antibacterial potency. The majority of the compounds were (desirably) more polar and had higher rates of clearance than bedaquiline, and showed acceptable oral bioavailability, but there was only limited (and unpredictable) improvement in their hERG liability.

6-Cyano Analogues of Bedaquiline as Less Lipophilic and Potentially Safer Diarylquinolines for Tuberculosis.

Bedaquiline (1) is a new drug for tuberculosis and the first of the diarylquinoline class. It demonstrates excellent efficacy against TB but induces phospholipidosis at high doses, has a long terminal elimination half-life (due to its high lipophilicity), and exhibits potent hERG channel inhibition, resulting in clinical QTc interval prolongation. A number of structural ring A analogues of bedaquiline have been prepared and evaluated for their anti-M.tb activity (MIC90), with a view to their possible application as less lipophilic second generation compounds. It was previously observed that a range of 6-substituted analogues of 1 demonstrated a positive correlation between potency (MIC90) toward M.tb and drug lipophilicity. Contrary to this trend, we discovered, by virtue of a clogP/M.tb score, that a 6-cyano (CN) substituent provides a substantial reduction in lipophilicity with only modest effects on MIC values, suggesting this substituent as a useful tool in the search for effective and safer analogues of 1.

Heteroatom-directed reverse Wacker oxidations. Synthesis of the reported structure of (-)-herbaric acid.

A microwave-assisted chemoenzymatic resolution has been used to install the C3 stereocenter of the reported structure of the fungal metabolite herbaric acid in high enantiomeric excess. The synthesis and stereochemical assignment was accomplished using a completely regioselective anti-Markovnikov addition of water to vinylphthalide 3, achieved using a heteroatom-directed Wacker oxidation that proceeds with retention of stereochemistry. These results establish that so-called "reverse" Wacker oxidations are a viable alternative to hydroboration/oxidation procedures.